SACRED GROVES SOURCES

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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Adhikary, A.K., “Society and World View of the Birhor”, Memoir No.60, Anthropological Survey of India, Calcutta, 1984.

The members of each clan of Birhor tribe think themselves to have descended from a common ancestor belonging to a particular hill or mountain and feel kinship relation among all of them. Each clan has a deity or Buru Bonga who is supposed to live in its traditional site or sites on forest clad hills or mountain. They worship and make sacrifices to their respective Buru Bonga from time to time facing the direction in which their traditional home are situated.

Agarwal, R., “Divine Protection”, Down to Earth, Vol. 11, No. 11, p 44, October 11, 2002.
The villagers in Kumaon Himalayas discovered that Gods were the best guards for their forests. So they have declared their forests as sacred in order to protect them from destruction.

Agricultural Finance Corporation Ltd., “Sacred Groves of Kurukshetra, Haryana”, Bombay Regional Centre, National Afforestation and Eco-development Board, MoEF, Government of India, New Delhi, 1995.
Unlike in other state there seems to be no common name for these groves even though they enjoy protection due to similar reasons. There are in all 248 sacred groves in Kurukshetra district out of which Kurukshetra tehsil has 190, 30 in Pehowa and 28 groves in Shahabad. The groves attached to temples account for 38 % and 16 % of groves comes under Ashram, Dharmashala and Vidyapeeth, Church. For detailed studies 36 sites were selected with the break-up of 20-temple grove, 6 Tirathsthans, 4 Gurudwaras and 4 Samadhis and one each of church and museum.

Alfrod, J.R.B., “Sacred Groves of Meghalaya”, pp 1-5, Calcutta, 1996.
A striking feature in Meghalaya is the presence of remnants of many small primary forests revered as sacred forests or Law Lyngdohin the Khasi and Jaintia hills. For a long time the plants in these forests are left unhindered, without any interference from man. The villagers protect these forests from intruders, as they consider them sacred, where the deities reside.

Altman, N., "Trees for Transformation", Sacred Trees, pp. 178 - 199, Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, 1994.
Since we began walking on this planet, humans have marvelled at the dramatic transformative properties of trees and other plants. Most sacred trees for transformation are those connected to legends of being favoured by God. Shamans to facilitate healing and transformation have traditionally used sacred trees.

Amirthalingam, M., “Folklore of Sacred Groves”, Indian Folklife, Vol. 1, No.3, pp. 8-9, October, 2000.
Folklore plays an important role in the conservation of sacred groves. Not only tribal people, but rural people also preserved the sacred groves by traditional customs, rituals, ceremonies and folk-beliefs.

Amrithlingam, M., “Sacred Groves of Tamilnadu - A Survey”, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, 1998.
The sacred groves or Kovilkadugal are an inherent feature of the ecological heritage and tradition of the southern state of Tamilnadu in India. These groves are the last remnants of the forests that once thrived in these areas. In the shade of the trees there is to be found a shrine, generally of the mother goddess, which is worshipped by the local community. In order to preserve both the environment and sanctity of the grove, several intriguing taboos and customs laid down way back in the past are still existent. In all 448 groves were studied from 28 district of the state in order to understand size, cultural practices and vegetation of the groves.

Amrithalingam, M., “Sacred Trees of Tamilnadu, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, 1998.

The sacred trees or sthalavrikshas form an important part of the ecological traditions of Tamilnadu. They have played a significant role in the protection and preservation of the environment. Each sacred tree is associated with a deity and a temple.

Amirthalingam, M., “ Sacred groves in the Environmental Protection”, Kisan World, Vol. 29, No. 3, p. 37, 2002.
Sacred groves play a major role in environmental protection. They control air pollution, cool the atmosphere, increase soil fertility, harbours various organisms and are also an integral part of social, religious, ecological and environmental traditions.

Amrithalingam, M., “Sthalavrikshas of Tamilnadu”, In: Krishna, N., & Prabhakaran, J. (eds.), The Ecological Traditions of Tamilnadu, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, pp. 83-93, 1997.

The tradition of associating trees with Gods and Goddesses in Tamilnadu can be traced back to 'sangam' literature, which is full of references to more than hundred plants. In Tamilnadu, 265 temples were visited and 60 stalavrikshas recorded.

Andrews, N., “Conservation of Sacred Groves: Participatory Strategy for the Future”, In: Papers Presented in the National Conference on Conservation of Sacred Groves and Ecological Heritage Sites, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, 1998.
Sacred groves are one of the most significant remaining vestiges of India’s rich heritage in the sphere of environment, which have been preserved purely by the virtue of the ancient Indian traditions and religious practices. They have ecological and economic significance due to the presence of rare and endangered species and other ecologically and economically important plant resources and animal population, which are not necessarily only harnessed on religious ground.

Anon, “Kurichiyas - A Traditional Agricultural Community”, Gender Dimensions in Biodiversity Management: India.
The Kurichiyas are a traditional agricultural community whose men and women attach great importance to their Kavu or the sacred groves. It has been a tradition among all the tharavadu to retain a portion of the woodland to which sacredness is attributed. Women are not supposed to go near the kavu.

Appffel, Margalin, F., and Parajuli, P., “Sacred grove and ecology: Ritual and Science”, In: Sharma, A., and Chapple, C., (eds.), Hinduism and Ecology - Ecology and World Religions series of the Center for the study of World Religions, Harvard University, 2000.

In this paper, the authors look closely at the practices of coastal small holder peasants and the fisher folks in Orissa (Puri district) during their most important festival of the year, Rajapraba, which takes place (in part) in a grove dedicated to Goddess Bali Haracandi (Haracandi of the sand).

Balasubramanian, A., “Preserving Village Temple Forests in Tamilnadu”, Blackbuck, Vol. V, No. 1 and 2, pp. 19 – 22,1989.
There are many village temple forests in Tamilnadu, which harbors a vast number of medicinal plants and shelter of many birds and animals. These forests are degraded by encroachments and are in need of immediate attention.

Balasubramanian, P., and Rajasekaran, A., “An Inventory of Sacred Groves of Coimbatore Forest Division, Tamilnadu”, In: Abstracts of seminar on Sacred Groves of India – Their Biodiversity Conservation, Hyderabad April 21, 1996.
The sacred groves of Coimbatore forest division are protected by the Irula community. Information on the deity of the sacred grove, ownership of the sacred grove, religious beliefs attached to the deity and plant diversity of the grove are given.

Banwari, “Pancavati: Indian Approach to Environment”, Shri Vinayaka Publications, Delhi, 1992.
The book “Pancavati: Indian Approach to Environment” surveys the complex skein of thoughts, beliefs and practices that developed from ancient period to the present. It presents for the first time the time-tested techniques discovered by Indian sages, seers, artisans, craftsman and householders practiced for period extending over five thousand years for preservation of environment. Besides discussing the medicinal properties of trees and the traditional methods of increasing the yield and fertility of land, it also describes the techniques of curing `sick’ trees.

Basha Chand, S., “Conservation and management of sacred groves in Kerala”, In: Ramakrishnan, P.S., Saxena, K.G., & Chandrashekhara, U.M., (eds.), Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity Management, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., pp. 337-347, 1998.

Ownership of the groves and the belief of the people on Gods residing inside the grove are two decisive factors which decide the conservation of the sacred groves in Kerala. The fact that about 79% of them are small i.e., below 0.02 ha in extent should never be taken as a criterion to neglect the groves. By appropriate management practices many of them can be developed or atleast kept in their existing condition with a possibility for improving the vegetation.

Bennet, S.S.R., Gupta, P.C., and Rao, R.V., "Origin of Tree Worship", Venerated Plants,pp. 1 - 35, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehra Dun, 1992.
India is a country of sacred deities, lakes, animals and has been the best friend of man even in the prehistoric period. It was through the worship of trees that man attempted to approach and appease God. Not only trees even sizeable patches of forests were protected as "Sacred Groves".

Bhakat, R.K., and Pandit, P.K., “Role of a Sacred Grove in Conservation of Medicinal Plants”, The Indian Forester, Vol. 129, No. 2, pp 224-232, Dehraduan, February 2003.
Sacred groves are small patches of native vegetation traditionally protected and managed by local communities for various. Sacred groves in general act as a nursery and storehouse of many of the local ayurvedic, tribal and folk medicines. Some of the species so preserved are already of medicinal significance.

Bhakat, R.K., "Socio-religious and Ecological Perspective of a Sacred Grove from Midnapore District, West Bengal", Science and Culture, Vol. 69, No. 11- 12,pp. 371 - 374, 2003.
The present paper provides an overview of the socio-religious and ecological dimensions of the Chilkigarh sacred grove. It records the existence value of the area in terms of ecology, environment, economy and human culture. The study discusses the future strategies for the effective long-term conservation and better management of the grove.

Bhasin, V., “Religious and cultural perspective of a sacred site – Sitabari in Rajasthan”. J.Hum.Ecol., 10 : 329-340, 1999.

The paper deals with the religious and cultural aspects of a sacred grove of Sitabari in Rajasthan. The grove is of great socio-religious importance to Sahariya tribals. It serves as a rallying point of a Sahariya rights movement. The grove is experiencing a variety of pressures - grazing, illicit tree cutting, etc.

Bhaskar, V., Nandini, D., Shivaprakash, H.B., and Anjappa, M., "Tree Diversity and Regeneration Status in Devarakadu (Sacred Groves) of Kodagu District, Karnataka", My Forest, 36, 2, pp. 105 - 120, Bangalore, 2000.
Devarakadu or sacred groves in Kodagu district are of special nature as they have remained, more often than to in near virgin state and in the climax form and probably constitute the only representation of the type of forest that existed earlier in the region. A study was undertaken to document the tree diversity, regeneration status in 25 Devarakadu of Kodagu.

Bhise, S.N., “Restoration of Ek-Panya-Baoji Sacred Grove Under WWF Supported CBCM Project”, In: Papers Presented in the National Conference on Conservation of Sacred Groves and Ecological Heritage Sites, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, 1998.
Orans, the sacred groves of Rajasthan are attached to temples or deities and support a variety of plants species. Ek-panya-Baoji is a sacred grove situated in the Aravalli hills near Madar village of Udaipur district. A project proposal has been submitted to the WWF for the restoration of this sacred grove.

Bhowmik, P.K., “Lodhas of West Bengal”, Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, 1963.

In Lodha tribals, the shrines are rectangular with mud walls and thatches of straw. These shrines face the east, the western portion being completely blocked by straw or branches of trees The shrines are treated as communal property. Inside the hut there is an earthen platform, locally called bedi.

Biswas, P.C., “Santals of the Santal Parganas.”, Bharatiya Adamjati Sevak Sangh, Delhi, 1956.

The Jaherthan is a place where religious ceremonies of the village are performed by the Santal. It is situated at the end of the village, usually within the boundary of the village. A cluster of sal trees about 20 to 25 in number is always required. Among these three trees are essential and they must stand in a row. At the base of each of these three trees a small stone is placed representing the deities Jaher era, Truko Muruko and Marang Buru. The fourth is an ashan tree which grows anywhere near those three sal trees, and a stone is put on its base representing the deity pargana Bonga. The 5th and the last is a Mowah tree; on its foot a stone representing the deity Gosain era is kept. This is known as ‘Lady of the grove’.

Boal, B.M., “The Khonds: Human Sacrifice and Religious Change”, Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England. The Modern Book Depot, Bhubaneswar, 1984.

The groves of Khond are known now simply as `God's tree' -all have their own custodians but they are devoted to the safeguarding of that particular village against witches and all forms of incoming evil.

Boraiah, K.T., Vasudeva, R., Bhagwat, A.S. and Kushalappa, C.G., “Do Informally Managed Sacred Groves Have Higher Richness and Regeneration of Medicinal Plants than State-managed Reserve Forests? ”, Current Science, Vol. 84, No. 6, pp. 804-808, Bangalore, March 2003.
Sacred groves are traditionally managed forest patches that functionally link social life and forest management systems of a region. The regeneration among the sacred groves of Central Western Ghats was assessed. The results suggests that sacred groves not only conserved useful species, but people have tended to discover medicinal values more often among plants unique to sacred groves, than those found in other landscapes.

Boraiah, K.T., Vasudeva, R., Bhagwat, A.S. and Kushalappa, C.G., "Regeneration of Threatened Flora Among the Sacred Groves of Kodagu, Karnataka, South India", My Forest, 38, 2, pp. 123 - 128, Bangalore, 2002.
In a study of sacred groves of Kodagu, it was identified that 'well- conserved' sacred groves had higher densities of the threatened flora than the 'disturbed sacred groves' as well as 'reserve forests'. In terms of species richness, conserved sacred groves were comparable to that of reserve forests. The result of the study further reinforces the notion that sacred groves, though small in size, are important repositories of rare/endangered flora.

Brandis, D., “Indian Forestry”, Oriental Institute, Woking, 1897.

Very little has been published regarding sacred groves in India, but they are, or rather were very numerous, found in nearly all provinces. These sacred forests, as a rule, are never touched by the axe except when wood is wanted for the repair of religious buildings or in special cases for other purposes.

Britto, J.S., Balaguru, B., Soosai Raj, S., and Arockiasamy, D.I., “Diversity of Plants in A Sacred Grove in Pudukottai District, Tamilnadu, South India”, Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 58-62, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, 2001.
Though drought prone, patches of vegetation still exist intact mostly as sacred groves in Pudukottai district of Tamilnadu. The sacred grove in Malliganatham village is rich in plant diversity. The grove consists of 260 plant species belonging to 176 genera distributed among 62 families. This paper discussed species diversity and presents the statistical analysis of Malliganatham sacred grove.

Britto, J.S., Balaguru, B., Soosai Raj, S. and Arockiasamy, D.I., “Floristic Analysis of A Sacred Grove at Vamban in Pudukottai District of Tamilnadu, South India”, Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, Vol. 25, No. 1, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, 2001.
The paper presents the flora of a sacred grove in Vamban in Pudukottai district, Tamilnadu. The study comprises 224 species belonging to 175 genera in 63 families. A part of the sacred grove is severely disturbed and areas adjoining the deity are well conserved. This grove is an example for high species diversity.

Burman, J.J.R., "Sacred Groves: Symbol of Self Assertion", Economic News & Views, 1994.
The sacred groves in recent years have drawn the attention of the environmentalists due to their undisturbed conditions which enable them to be repositories of gene pools. The sacred groves also are indicative of the phenomenon of ethno-environmental management.

Centre for Science and Environment, “The Spirit of Sanctuary”, Down to Earth, pp. 21-37, 1994.
Sacred groves are tracts of virgin forests protected by the people to avoid the wrath of God. They are found in many parts of India from Meghalaya in Northeast and the states along the Western Ghats.

Chandrakanth, M.G., Gilless, J.K., Goramma, V., and Nagaraj, M.G., “Temple forests in India's forest development”, Agroforestry Systems, 11: 199-211, 1990.

Historically the temple forests in India have served many spiritual and religious purposes. This paper stresses on the use of the underused repertoire of sacred acts to integrate the benefits of temple forests in rural development.

Chandrakanth, M.G., and Nagaraj, M.G., “Existence value of Kodagu sacred groves: Implications for policy”, In: The Challenge of the Balance: Environmental Economics in India, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, pp. 217 – 224, 1997.

This paper highlights Coorg's Devara Kadu (sacred groves) tradition and the role of village communities in consciously providing a social fence for its sustainability. The paper examines the status of Devara Kadus in Coorg.

Chandran, M.D.S., “On the ecological history of the Western Ghats”, Current Science, 73: 146-155, 1997.

Over three millennia of forest utilization and management by traditional societies, and the practice of state forestry, since last 200 years, have moulded the forest ecosystems of the Western Ghats. Major vegetational changes here began with the migrations of agri-pastoral people, beginning in the middle of 4th millennium BP. The pre-colonial times had mostly village oriented traditional landscape management. Since colonial times, the forestry became more state centered, paying scant consideration to traditional management.

Chandran, M.D.S., “Review of Sacred Groves in Kodagu District of Karnataka (South India): A Socio-historical study by M.A. Kalam”. South Indian Studies, 3, 1997.

Kalam's study truly reflects the plight of the groves in Kodagu which are getting engulfed in commercial plantations of coffee, tea, rubber and other agricultural crops. The strength of Kalam's work is in the historical account of the British colonial period as well as in portraying the pathetic state of the groves today.

Chandran, M.D.S., “Sacred Groves of Karnataka’, In: Papers Presented in the National Conference on Conservation of Sacred Groves and Ecological Heritage Sites, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, 1998.
The state of Karnataka has thousands of sacred groves, especially along the Western Ghats and the west coast. Most of the gramadevatas or village deities are sheltered in shrines under the sprawling Ficus, or neem trees. These sacred groves have declined due to lack of proper demarcation, monocultures, conversion of these groves into common property resources, cultural changes etc.

Chandran, M.D.S., “Sacred groves and Sacred trees of Uttara Kannada”, In: Baidyanath Saraswati (ed.), Culture and Development No. 5 - Life Style and Ecology. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 85 -138, 1998.

The study is based on the survey of sacred groves and trees in 25 sq. km area of Siddapur taluk of Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka. The area harboured about 54 sacred groves.

Chandran, M.D.S., “The decline of Sacred groves”, Down To Earth, 1992.
Colonial rule and shifting cultivation have brought about the decline of the sacred groves of Uttar Kannada district, which protected the watersheds and conserved local biodiversity.

Chandran, M.D.S., and Gadgil, M., “ ‘Kans’- Safety Forests of Uttara Kannada”, Mitteilungen, Freiburg, 1993.
‘Kans’ also known as the safety forests are rich in biological diversity, and were also places of worship for the pre-brahmin peasant societies. They are the sacred forests of Karnataka. Today, the kans are on the decline. Salvaging these valuable remnants from further degradation and bringing them in a conservation network merit top priority.

Chandran, M.D.S., and Gadgil, M., “Resource Use Systems and Maintanence of Biodiversity in Pre and Post- Colonial India”, Int. J. Sustainable Development, Vol. 1, No.4, pp. 41-50, 1993.
The Indian subcontinent is rich in biodiversity and the maintenance of this richness through millennia is mainly because of the deeply rooted traditions of conservation in Indian culture.

Chandran, M.D.S., Gadgil, M., and Hughes, J.D., “Sacred groves of the Western Ghats of India”, In: Ramakrishnan, P.S., Saxena, K.G., & Chandrashekhara, U.M., (eds.), Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity Management, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., pp. 211-231, 1998.

The authors in this article review the existing literature on sacred groves of the Western Ghats of Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra. The article covers a wide range to topics: sacred groves for conservation of biodiversity, animal diversity of the sacred groves; sacred groves and watershed protection; sacred groves and subsistence; threats to the sacred groves; state forestry in sacred groves and socio-cultural causes of decline of the sacred groves in the Western Ghats.

Chandran, M.D.S., and Hughes, J.D., “The sacred groves of South India: Ecology, Traditional communities and Religious change”, Social Compass, 44 (3): 411-425, 1997.

The Sacred groves of South India still exist, although the importance given to them is sporadically declining. Several peasant communities such as Karivokkaliga, Halepaik and Halakkigowda perceive the presence of these deities in the entire grove, and it is their place of worship to this day. An attitude that nature itself is sacred dominates the worldview of many village societies. Stones or termite mounds may be present as cult objects. The groves in the Western Ghats broadly come under two classes. The smaller groves are entirely protected; no tree felling or other biomass extraction may be carried out. On the other hand, larger groves function as resource forest also, offering both sustenance and ecological security.

Chandran, M.D.S., and Mesta, D., “On the conservation of the Myristica swamps of the Western Ghats”, In: Shaanker, U., Ganeshaiah, R. K.N., & Bawa, K.S. (eds), Forest Genetic Resources: Status, Threats, and Conservation Strategies, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., pp. 1-19, 2001.

Myristica swamps form one of the unique ecosystems in the Western Ghats, a global mega-diversity hot-spot. These swamps, as their name indicates, are the only sites of occurrence of certain members of the ancient family Myristicaceae such as Myristica fatua and Gymnacranthera canarica. Out of 51 swamps surveyed in Uttara Kannada district 17 are the sacred groves of the local people. Authors review the status of, and threats to, the Myristica swamps based on the study of vegetation structure and composition in the swamps.

Chandrashekhara, U.M., and Sankar, S., “Structure and functions of sacred groves: Case studies in Kerala”, In: Ramakrishnan, P.S., Saxena, K.G., & Chandrashekhara, U. M. (eds.), Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity Management, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., pp. 323-335, 1998.

In this paper the authors discuss the influence of different management systems on the vegetation structure and composition, the present strengths and weaknesses of all important stakeholder groups and the strategies to be adopted for effective conservation and management of sacred groves. Three sacred groves with different management systems – Sri Bhagavathi Kavu at Iringole, Shri Shangukulangara Bhagavathi Kavu at Sree Narayana Puram and Sarpa Kavu at Ollur – were studied.

Chatterjee, A., and Das, T.C., “The Ho’s of Seraikella”, University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1927.
In the villages of Ho tribals, there is no special common meeting ground, but Sasans of the different kinds often serve the same purpose. In these villages, a few large trees such as the nim (Melia azadirachta), tetul (Tamarindus indica), asan (Terminalia tomentosa) and mahua (Bassia latifolia) were commonly observed within the Sasans. These are located on prominent sites and are almost invariably shaded by large trees. They are well kept and regarded as sacred. When firewood is not available, the body is buried in the Sasan.

Charles, M., “Sacred Groves: A Reminder of the Greener Past and the Spirit of Biodiversity Conservation in Tamil Tradition”, Environment, Biodiversity and Bioethics- Current Trends and Future Direction, pp156-171, Chennai, July, 2002.
Sacred groves, the remnants of the greener and luxurious vegetation of the past, remain today as repositories of the social, culture, religious and ritual traditions of the ancient Tamils on conservation of biodiversity. People’s participation must be encouraged in protection and developing such nature temples and places of worship.

Chatterjee, S., “Groves of Conseravation”, WWF-India, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 5-9, 1999.
The sacred groves of Rajasthan are called Orans. The groves have come under the increasing threat of human exploitation, and calls for management strategies for their revival.

Chauhan, B.B.S, “Preserving of Forest Wealth: Some Sacred Needed”, WWF-INDIA, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp 2-3, May 1999.
The author has discusses impact of human activities on the protected forests and also suggests means and ways to save the forest from such disturbances. He feels that it is very important to immediately launch a force that can save the forests from plunder and destruction.

Chhabra,T., “Sacred Context”, Down to Earth, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp 46-48, August 15, 2002.
The ancient rituals of the Todas, a nature worshipping tribe in south India, worked as natural and ecological safeguards to protect the Nilgiri hills from destruction. But today because the forests are destroyed, the Toda culture is in stake.

Das, A.K., and Raha, M.K., ”The Oraons of Sunderban”, Bulletin of Cultural Research Institute, pp. 240-343, 1963.

In the Sundarban area, the Oraon tribals have no temple as that of the Hindus, but have than i.e., sacred spot marked for the village deities. Besides sheds of Devi Mai, they also have one or more sal (Shorea robusta) groves or solitary trees, constituting the shrine of the village deities. The place of worship is generally situated in the centre of the village, is regularly cleaned and plastered with cow dung paste by the assistant of the Pahan.

Das, K., and Malhotra, K.C., “Sacred Groves among the Tribes of India: A Literature Survey of Ethnographic Monographs”, Integrated Rural Development of Weaker - Sections in India, Semiliguda, Mimeograph, 1998.

The authors studied 36 monographs on the tribes belonging to Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal; among whom sacred groves are found. For each tribe a brief description of the sacred groves are given.

Deb, D., and Malhotra, K.C., “Interface between biodiversity and tribal cultural heritage: An exploratory study”, Hum, J.., Ecol., 8(3), 157-163, 1997.

The use of forest products for socio-religious purposes has hardly been brought into focus. In this study, concerning indigenous forest use patterns in the Indian context, the bio-resources used by five West Bengal tribes have been identified. The study also reports for the first time the existence of a number of evanescent sacred groves in West Bengal. An inventory of the flora and fauna which are protected through taboos has also been produced.

Deb, D., Deuti, K., and Malhotra, K.C., “Sacred grove relics as bird refugia”, Current Science, 73(10), 815-817, 1997.

The observations are a fall out of an ethno-biological survey conducted from early April to end-June, 1996 in Jamboni, Jhargram, Gidhni, Belpahari and Banspahari Forest Ranges of western Midnapore district. A total of 42 species of resident land birds were sighted in the sal forests, sacred groves, farm fields and vegetations in the region.

Deshmukh, S., Gogate, M.G., and Gupta, A.K., “Sacred groves and biological diversity : Providing new dimensions to conservation issues”, In: Ramakrishnan, P.S., Saxena, K.G., & Chandrashekhara, U.M., (eds.), Conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity Management, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., pp. 415-421, 1998.

The authors in this paper pose several questions and issues related to conservation and development of sacred groves in Maharashtra. They also provide criteria for genetic conservation based on primary information on each of the sacred groves that exist today.

Ekka, W., and Danda, A.K., “The Nagesia of Chattishgarh”, Anthropological Survey of India, Memoir No: 58. Calcutta, 1984.

The deities of Nagesia tribe reside in Sarna, a grove of sal trees (Shorea robusta) of the mouja. It is here that these deities are mostly worshipped. Supernatural fear prevents the people from cutting trees of the Sarna.

Elwin, V., “Maria Murder and Suicide”, Oxford University Press, London, 1943.

The religion of the Maria centres round the earth, the state and the clan. On the outskirts of the village will be found the shrine of the village mother and in a grove nearby there may be the temple of one of the clan Gods.

Elwin, V., “The Muria and Their Ghotul”, Oxford University Press, London, 1947.

In a few Muria villages, there are no temples. In Almer, there is nothing but a few stone seats under saja trees, where the village Mother is worshipped and the New Eating ceremonies performed. In Kajen the village Mother forbade the erection of any shrine.

Elwin, V., “The Pardhans of the Upper Narbada Valley”, Oxford University Press, London, 1946.

In Pradhan tribals, Bara Deo (also called Baro Pen, Budha Pen or Burha Deo) is on the whole a good and useful God. His traditional abode is in the forest with saja trees. But for the Pradhans, the Deo has a nearer and more familiar home, his special portable temple, the sacred Bana fiddle.

Elwin, V., “Bondo Highlander”, Oxford University Press, London, 1950.

Near Bodoballe village of Bondo tribals is a fine sacred grove and in the middle of the settlement a stone shrine for Hundi and several well shaded sindibor. In Mundlipada village in the foothills, is the fine grove of mango trees and the spring called Kingu Bodak. In the midst of the trees is a spring of exquisitely clear water built up on either side with stone walls, while among the surrounding rocks are a number of Menhirs. This is the site of the origin of Bondo tribes. Higher up the hill is another grove where, in a giant banyan at the centre of the grove, is hidden the ancient sacred sword of Pat Khonda Mahapravu , and three times in the year - at Dassera, at full moon of Magh and during the giag-gige, it is brought down and worshipped. The sword has become the symbol of an important local deity. The grove is taboo for entry of women. Within its shade it is forbidden to point with finger, and no one may cut down a tree on pain of death, which the dead will certainly send on the offender.

Elwin, V., “The Baiga”, Gain Publishing House, Delhi, 1986.

Bara Deo has always been regarded as the chief deity of the Baiga and Gond. Bura Deo, who is supposed to reside in a saj tree, he is worshipped in the month of Jeth (May), when goats, fowl, coconuts, and the liquor of the new mahua crop are offered to him. He lived in an anthill.

Freeman, R., “Forests and the Folk: Perceptions of Nature in the Swidden Regimes of Highland Malabar”, Pondy Papers in Social Sciences, French Institute, Pondicherry, 1994.

This paper explores the popular attitude towards the forests and its natural resources as reflected in the memories, folk-sources and religious institutions of former swidden agriculturists living in the highlands of Kasar District in Northern Kerala. The central focus of this article is ‘sacred groves’ (Kavu). The groves are subjected to a closer cultural analysis than usual, particularly in light of the frequent claims made of their religiously inspired conservationist rationale.

Fuchs, S., “The Gond and Bhumia of Eastern Mandala”, Asia Publishing House, New York, 1960.

The Bhumia tribals call their main God, Thakur Deo, who is supposed to have his abode in each Bhumia village, usually in tree. It can be any tree - semur, mahua or sag tree - which the God selects as his home. The Thakur Deo is supposed to keep the village immune from disease and misfortunes and also help the villagers to prosper by securing for them a fair annual harvest.

G

Gadgil, M., “Conserving India’s Biodiversity: The Human Context”, Sustainable Management of Natural Resources, Ed. Khoshoo, T.N., and Sharma, M., pp 243-255, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, 1992.
India with its position at the trijunction of the Ethiopian, Palaearctic and Oriental realms of biogeography, and its great diversity of environmental regimes is one of the world’s top twelve megadiversity countries. The problems of conserving its heritage of biodiversity are exceedingly complex. The monkeys, peepal and banyan trees that characterize much of India’s countryside, as well as the sacred groves and ponds that occur in more restricted tracts owe their existence to the country’s rich traditions of nature conservation. Fresh initiatives should be taken for conserving the biodiversity. This should involve the knowledge of the local people.

Gadgil, M., "Folk Traditions in the Management of Biological Resources", Congress on Traditional Science and Technologies in India, pp. 3.5 - 3.12, IIT, Bombay,1993.
In this paper a comparison has been made between the traditional or folk practices of natural resource management of the ecosystem people with the modern, so-called scientific practices of the biosphere people.

Gadgil, M., “Grassroots Conservation Practices: Revitalizing the Traditions”, Communities and Conservation: Natural Resource Management in South and Central Asia, pp 219-238, New Delhi, 1998.
Biodiversity elements of value are by no means confined to extensive tracts of pristine ecosystem; they may occur even in the midst of extensively humanized landscapes such as sacred groves. It is important to encourage local communities to maintain biodiversity through appropriated financial rewards.

Gadgil, M., “Husbanding India’s natural resources: The Tradition and Prospects”, Contemporary Indian Tradition, In: Bondin, C.M. (ed.), Contemporary Indian Tradition, Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington & London, pp. 323-331, 1989.
Sacred groves had been preserved over time mainly on the basis of religious beliefs. The benefits of sacred groves accrue to the social group on a long-term basis. The concept of sacred grove is undoubtedly an ancient tradition. In this article the author describes a sacred grove at Gani village located in a remote area of Konkan, in Maharashtra. . The grove had been preserved over time not because of any economic or practical arguments but rather on the basis of religious beliefs. The author argues that the benefits of groves accrue to the social group on a long-term basis.

Gadgil, M., “Heritage of a conservation ethic”, In: Allchin, B., Allchin, F.R., and Thapar, B.K., (eds.), Conservation of an Indian Heritage, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, pp. 13-22, 1989.

The traditional Indian society had elaborated an organization of resource use that strongly favoured prudent utilization of natural resources over a wide cross-section of the Indian society. This had fostered a widespread ethic of conservation that has been rudely shaken by the impact of the British industrial society over the last two centuries. The most notable of such traditions are sacred groves totally inviolate to any human interference and village groves where only limited, regulated use by members of a local community is permitted.

Gadgil, M., “The Indian caste system as a historical adaptation: An ecological perspective”, New Quest, pp. 279-283, 1983.
The Indian caste organization is intimately related to a variety of cultural practices, imposing social restraints on the utilization of natural resources and was responsible for the Indian society to reach an ecological steady state.

Gadgil, M., “The Indian heritage of a conservation ethic”, In: B. Allchin, E.R. Allchin and B.K. Thapar ed., Conservation of the Indian Heritage, pp. 13-22, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1989.
India possesses a rich conservation ethic to which we owe the continued existence of many facets of the country’s natural heritage. In order to review our understanding of India’s cultural heritage of a conservation ethic and to continue the conservation, this article discusses about the nature worship, forest, tribal tradition, caste system, western tradition etc., of India.

Gadgil, M., “Saving Subcontinent’s Wealth”, The Hindu Survey of the Environment, pp. 140-141, 1991.
India has a wealth of biodiversity that needs to be conserved. Any conservation measure taken will have a long-term effect only when the local people are involved.

Gadgil, M., “Social restraints on resource utilisation: The Indian experience”, In: McNeely, J.A., and Pitt, D., (eds.), Culture and Conservation - The Human Dimension in Environmental Planning, Croom Helm, London, pp. 135-154, 1985.

The author in this paper argues that an understanding of the conditions under which human societies did evolve effective methods of prudent utilization of the resources, and of the circumstances under which these practices broke down. The author gives several specific examples of various practices of restraints on the exploitation of wild plant and animal resources being practiced by the Indian society. The examples include among other aspects, sacred groves, pools and ponds from the Indian sub-continent.

Gadgil, M., “Traditional Resource Management Systems”, Resource Management and Optimization, Vol 8 (3-4), pp.127-141, 1991.
Traditional resource management systems involved people and such community-based resource management systems worked because of the presence of appropriate common property institutions. These systems are consistent with the ecosystem view and current ecological theory.

Gadgil, M., “Traditional conservation practices”, In: Nierenberg, W.A., (ed.), Encyclopedia of Environmental Biology, Academic Press, pp. 423-425, 1995.

The author reports a number of cultural traditions from India, which have exhibited deliberate restraints on resource harvests that have promoted the sustainable use of biological resources and the conservation of biodiversity in many different places and times. The author illustrates this by giving examples of sacred groves.

Gadgil, M., and Chandran, M.D.S., “Sacred Groves”, India International Centre Quarterly, 19(1-2), 183-187, 1992.

Ecologists, of late, have come out with studies on the remarkable systems of resource management by many traditional societies, which, while based on simple rules of the thumb, in many ways parallel the modern ecosystem approach. Such societies existed in different countries. Sacred groves are one of the finest instances of traditional conservation practices.

Gadgil, M., and Chandran, M.D.S., “Sacred Groves”, Indigenous Vision Peoples of India Attitudes to the Environment, pp. 185-187, New Delhi, 1992.
Sacred groves are one of the finest examples of traditional conservation practices and were centres of cultural and religious life for people of the old world. These sacred groves need to be protected and restored.

Gadgil, M., and Gokhale,Y., "Sacred Elements of Nature in India", Setting Biodiversity Conservation Priorities for India, pp. 691 - 707, WWF - India, 2000.
Since we began walking on this planet, humans have marvelled at the dramatic transformative properties of trees and other plants. Most sacred trees for transformation are those connected to legends of being favoured by God. Shamans to facilitate healing and transformation have traditionally used sacred trees.

Gadgil, M., Hemam, N.S., and Reddy, B.M., “People, refugia and resilience”, In: C. Folke and F. Berkes (ed.) Linking Social and Ecological System, pp. 30-47, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997.
Modern resource management practices are based on explicitly stated rationale. The authors demonstrate that practices leading to sustainable use may be arrived at through a trial-and-error process based on very simple rules. Secondly, they present a case study of a resource conservation practice (sacred groves) grounded in religious beliefs that was abandoned and then revived essentially in the original form when the community realized its value in the provision of ecosystem services.. A case study of villages of Gangte, a group of Kuki tribe in Churachandpur district, Manipur state in northeastern India is discussed for the above mentioned objectives.

Gadgil, M., and Vartak, V.D., “Groves dedicated to the Gods”, The Illustrated Weekly of India, p. 21, 1973.
It is a common practice in India to dedicate a patch of forest land (grove), to the local God. These groves are a haven for birds and animals and also preserve many plants that are on the verge of extinction.

Gadgil, M., and Vartak, V.D., “Sacred groves of India: A plea for continued conservation”, Journal of Bombay Natural History Society,72: 314 – 320,1975.

The authors illustrate the phenomenon of sacred groves with the help of two examples from Maharashtra; one, a grove of the Goddess Janni at Mangaon in Velhe taluka of Poona district and the second, a grove of the Goddess Kalkai at Gani in Shrivardhan taluka of Kolaba district. Scattered, apparently throughout India, are a large number of forest tracts, which have remained immune from human interference because of religious beliefs. As deforestation has been taking place at a rapid rate in many areas, such forests have come to be the only remnants of the original forest in a number of cases.